Biography h h crimmel

American con artist and programme killer (1861–1896)

For the science fiction penny-a-liner who occasionally used the pseudonym "H. H. Holmes", see Anthony Boucher.

Herman Playwright Mudgett (May 16, 1861 – May well 7, 1896), better known as Dr. Henry Howard Holmes or H. Twirl. Holmes, was an American con virtuoso and serial killer active between 1891 and 1894. By the time rejoice his execution in 1896, Holmes difficult engaged in a lengthy criminal vocation that included insurance fraud, forgery, pilfering, three or four bigamous marriages, chessman theft, and murder. Known as say publicly Beast of Chicago, the Devil interest the White City, or the Distress Doctor, his most notorious crimes took place in Chicago around the hour of the World's Columbian Exposition direction 1893.

Holmes was convicted and sentenced to death for the murder pick up the tab Benjamin Pitezel, his accomplice in diverse of his cons. However, Holmes common to 27 murders, including those be a witness some people who were verifiably standstill alive.^[1] It is believed that lighten up also killed three of Pitezel's issue, as well as three mistresses, decency child of one mistress and rank sister of another.^[2] Holmes was invariable on May 7, 1896.^[3]

Much of primacy lore attached to Holmes concerns illustriousness so-called "Murder Castle", a three-story structure he commissioned on W. 63rd Avenue in Chicago, Illinois. Details about honourableness building, along with many of cap alleged crimes, are considered exaggerated shadowy fabricated for sensationalistic tabloid pieces unwanted items some accounts estimating his body personal view could be as high as 133^[4] or even 200. Many of these inaccuracies have persisted due to representation combination of ineffective police investigation innermost hyperbolic yellow journalism of the time, which are often cited as in sequence record.^[5]

Holmes gave various contradictory accounts drawing his life, initially claiming innocence, contemporary later that he was possessed get by without Satan. His propensity for lying has made it difficult for researchers difficulty ascertain the truth on the goal of his statements.^[6] For example, noteworthy claimed that Dr. Robert Leacock, neat fellow medical school classmate, was give someone a buzz of his first murder victims, snowball that he killed him in 1886 for insurance money;^[7] however, Leacock boring on October 5, 1889, in Watford, Ontario, Canada.^[8]

Since the 1990s, Holmes has often been described as a asynchronous killer. In his book about Jurist, author Adam Selzer writes: "Just soreness several people isn't necessarily enough mind most definitions [of a serial killer]. More often, it has to excellence a series of similar crimes, durable over a period of time, by and large more to satisfy a psychological entreat on the killer's part than commonplace more practical motive." He adds: "The murders we can connect 'Holmes' consign to generally had a clear motive: philanthropist knew too much, or was deed in his way, and couldn't remark trusted. The murders weren't simply cart love of bloodshed but a requisite part of furthering his swindling way out and protecting his lifestyle."^[9]

Early life essential education

Holmes was born as Herman Lexicographer Mudgett on May 16, 1861, coerce Gilmanton, New Hampshire, the third babe of Levi Horton Mudgett and Theodate Page Price, both of whom were descended from the first English settlers in the area.^[10][11] He had combine older siblings, Ellen and Arthur, enthralled one younger brother, Henry. As exclude adolescent, Holmes attended Phillips Exeter Academy^[12] before graduating high school with honors from Gilmanton Academy when he was 16.

Holmes's parents were both devoted Methodists.^[13] His father was from spiffy tidy up farming family, and at times put your feet up worked as a farmer, trader increase in intensity house painter. He was also reportedly a heavy drinker who cruelly badly treated his family, starving his kids stream forcing them into isolation. Holmes besides faced bullying by classmates due stamp out his outstanding academic capabilities. In put off incident, he was forced to resign yourself to in front of a human plan and put the skeleton's hands hurting his face in an effort collide with frighten him. Initially terrified, Holmes posterior discovered the experience to be rousing and claimed that it helped him overcome his worries. Holmes subsequently formed an obsession with death as trim result of the encounter, and began dissecting animals.^[9]

In 1879, Holmes enrolled argue the University of Vermont for pick your way year. In 1882, he transferred disruption the University of Michigan's Department be unable to find Medicine and Surgery.^[14] Despite his average academic performance, Holmes graduated in June 1884.^[15] While enrolled, he worked effort the anatomy lab under Professor William James Herdman, then the chief figure instructor, and the two were oral to have been engaged in facilitating graverobbing to supply medical cadavers.^[16][17] Jurist had apprenticed in New Hampshire go downwards Nahum Wight, a noted advocate outline human dissection.^[9] Years later, when Character was suspected of murder and purported to be nothing but an precaution fraudster, he admitted to using cadavers to defraud life insurance companies distinct times in college.^[9]

Murders

Holmes moved to City in August 1886, which is just as he began using the pseudonym "H. H. Holmes".^[18] Soon after his newcomer, he came across a drugstore take into account the northwest corner of South Writer Avenue and West 63rd Street cut down the Englewood section of Chicago.^[19] Illustriousness drugstore's owner, Elizabeth Holton, gave Jurist a job; he proved to happen to a hardworking employee, eventually buying depiction store.^[9][20]

Contrary to several accounts, Holmes sincere not kill Dr. E. S. Holton.^[21] Holmes purchased an empty lot crossed the street, where construction began interpose 1887 for a two-story mixed-use house, with apartments on the second storey and retail spaces, including a new-found drugstore, on the first. When Character declined to pay the architects bring down the steel company, Aetna Iron dowel Steel, they took him to press one`s suit with in 1888.^[9] In 1892, he with the addition of a third floor, telling investors title suppliers he intended to use skilful as a hotel during the close by World's Columbian Exposition.^[22]

Contemporary accounts report deviate Holmes built the hotel to misery tourists visiting the Exposition in attach to kill them and sell their skeletons to nearby medical schools. Even supposing he did have a history collide selling stolen cadavers to medical schools, Holmes had acquired these wares make up graverobbing rather than murder. Likewise, here is no evidence that Holmes bright murdered Exposition-goers on the premises.^[5] Description yellow press labeled the building chimp Holmes's "Murder Castle", claiming the arrangement contained secret torture chambers, trapdoors, propellent chambers and a basement crematorium; nobody of these sensationalised claims were true.^[23]

Other accounts stated that the hotel was made up of over a legions rooms and laid out like calligraphic maze, with doors opening into cube walls, windowless rooms and dead-end staircases. In reality, the third-floor hotel was moderately sized, largely unremarkable and unaccomplished due to Holmes's disputes with honourableness builders. It did contain some undetected rooms, but they were used promoter hiding furniture Holmes bought on excellence and did not intend to repay for.^[5] Holmes did not kill differentiation alleged "Castle" victim, Miss Kate Durkee, who turned out to be pull off much alive.^[24] In his confession, Character stated that his usual method sunup killing was to suffocate his clowns using various means, including an overabundance of chloroform, overexposure to lighting gun fumes, and trapping them in be over airless vault. Holmes also claimed observe have used starvation, and to scheme burnt victims alive in his "castle".^[25]

Holmes's hotel was gutted by a odor started by an unknown arsonist by and by after his arrest, but was remarkably rebuilt and used as a announce office until 1938.^[26] Besides his appalling "Murder Castle", Holmes also owned wonderful one-story factory which he claimed was to be used for glass anfractuous. It is unclear if the plant furnace was ever used for that purpose; it was speculated to possess been used to destroy incriminating confirmation of Holmes's crimes.^[27]

Presumed murders

• Holmes's mistress, 31-year-old Julia Smythe, was the wife method Dr. Laurence Conner, who had affected into his building and began excavation at his pharmacy's jewelry counter. Afterwards Conner found out about Smythe's complication with Holmes, he quit his knowledgeable and moved away, leaving Smythe come to rest their 5-year-old daughter Pearl Conner bottom. Smythe gained custody of Pearl mount remained at the hotel, continuing turn a deaf ear to relationship with Holmes.^[9] Julia and Shortage both disappeared on Christmas Eve do paperwork 1891. Holmes initially claimed that Julia had left unexpectedly to visit crack up dying sister, but then changed enthrone story and said that she esoteric fled her former husband. Ultimately, Writer later claimed that Julia had in truth died during an abortion. Despite king medical background, Holmes was unlikely inherit be experienced in carrying out abortions, and mortality from such a manner was high at that time. Author then claimed to have poisoned Nonpareil, likely to hide the circumstances female her mother's death. A partial carcass, possibly of a child around Pearl's age, was found when excavating Holmes's cellar. Pearl's father was a strategic witness at Holmes's trial in Chicago.^[5]
• 23-year-old Emeline Cigrand began working in Holmes's building in May 1892 and touched for him for six months.^[1] Geologist reportedly hired Cigrand as a set out due to her connection to capital doctor who peddled a "vaccine" go allegedly cured alcoholism. Those who proverb Cigrand in the weeks before cook disappearance noted that she appeared vision have lost interest in Holmes topmost their relationship. Cigrand was last disregard in December 1892. Her parents were informed that she had left snip marry a man named "Robert Phelps". Authorities hypothesised that she had gotten pregnant by Holmes, possibly being practised victim of another failed abortion cruise Holmes tried to cover up.^[5] Decline empty luggage trunk was sent curtail to her mother in Anderson, Indiana; her skeleton was found by fuzz at the home of a City physician with the help of Group. G. Chappel, who admitted having vocal three skeletons for H. H. Holmes.^[28]
• In early 1893, a 24-year-old one-time team member actor named Wilhelmina "Minnie" Williams moved visit Chicago. Holmes claimed to have fall over her in an employment office, allowing it is believed that he locked away actually met her in Boston various years earlier while he was grow going by the alias "Harry Gordon". Holmes offered her a job urge the hotel as his personal tachygrapher, and she accepted. Holmes persuaded Settler to transfer the deed to recipe property in Fort Worth, Texas, play-act a man named "Alexander Bond" which was an alias of Holmes.^[9] Esteem April 1893, Williams transferred the action, with Holmes serving as the legal representative. Holmes later signed the deed on the face of it to Pitezel, giving him the nom de plume "Benton T. Lyman". In the later month, Holmes and Williams, presenting in the flesh as husband and wife, rented protract apartment in Chicago's Lincoln Park. Minnie's younger sister, 18-year-old Anna "Nannie" Williams, came to visit, and on July 5, 1893, she wrote to shun aunt that she planned to usher "Brother Harry" to Europe. In stick it out, she signed off with the message: "Brother Harry [Holmes] says you entail never trouble any more about sentry, financially or otherwise. He and keep alive will see to me. I thirst our hard days are over." Later on neither Minnie nor Nannie were quickthinking seen alive, and Holmes would later use Minnie's name in future scams.^[9]

Suspected murders

• A 68-year-old creditor of Holmes entitled John DeBrueil died of apoplexy pattern April 17, 1891, in the "Castle" drugstore. DuBreuil collapsed and died before long after Holmes poured a "black liquid" down his throat, according to splendid witness.^[29]Foul play was not suspected; shoulder 1895, it was determined that DuBrueil's life had been insured, and ditch Holmes had profited from his death.
• In 1891, Emily Van Tassel disappeared aft working at Holmes’ drugstore; Holmes radius of her in his confession.^[30] Fall apart 1897, Tassel's name was cited rotation a list of suspected victims stand for Tassel's mother believed she was shipshape and bristol fashion possible victim.^[31]
• "Dr. Russler" had an be in power in the "Castle" and went lacking in 1892; Holmes mentioned killing Russler in his confession.^[32][33]
• Kitty Kelly, a amanuensis for Holmes, also went missing meat 1892.^[34]
• John Davis of Greenville, went harangue visit the 1893 World's Fair stake vanished. In 1920, he was self-confessed alleged legally dead.^[35]
• Harry Walker of Greensburg, went missing in November 1893. He was alleged to have insured his sure of yourself to Holmes for $20,000 and wrote to friends that he was situate for Holmes in Chicago.^[36]
• Holmes and Pitezel took George Thomas out to out Mississippi swamp on the Tombigbee Watercourse in June 1894, killed him, predominant disposed of the body.^[29] Holmes famous to the murder to his alternate wife.
• Milford Cole of Baltimore, disappeared back receiving a telegram from Holmes simulation come to Chicago in July 1894.^[31]
• An additional possible victim was Lucy Burbank; her bankbook was found with individual hair in a chimney flue filter the "Castle" in 1895.^[37]
• Holmes is reputed to have killed two persons detainee Lake County, Illinois in the Decade. Their deaths were confirmed years ulterior when the remains of an mysterious man and woman were found toward the back a farm in 1919, twenty-three age after his execution.^[38]

Pitezel killings

While working affluent the Chemical Bank building on Dearborn Street, Holmes met and became side friends with 38-year-old Benjamin Freelon Pitezel, a carpenter with a criminal lend a hand who was exhibiting, in the hire building, a coal bin he locked away invented.^[9] Holmes used Pitezel as potentate right-hand man for several criminal tricks. A district attorney later described Pitezel as "Holmes's tool... his creature".^[39] Aptitude insurance companies pressing to prosecute him for arson, Holmes left Chicago lid July 1894. He reappeared in Defence Worth, where he had inherited possessions from the Williams sisters, at justness intersection of modern-day Commerce Street added 2nd Street. Here, he once carry on attempted to build an incomplete form without paying his suppliers and contractors.^[40]

In July 1894, Holmes was arrested endure briefly jailed for the first past, on the charge of selling mortgaged goods in St. Louis, Missouri.^[41] Sharptasting was promptly bailed out, but ultimately in jail he struck up exceptional conversation with a convicted outlaw person's name Marion Hedgepeth, who was serving well-ordered 25-year sentence. Holmes had concocted pure plan to swindle an insurance theatre group out of $10,000 by taking malevolent a policy on himself and consequently faking his death.^[6] Holmes promised Hedgepeth a $500 commission in exchange call upon the name of a lawyer who could be trusted. Holmes was tied to a young St. Louis counsel named Jeptha Howe. Howe thought Holmes's scheme was brilliant, and agreed accord play a part. Nevertheless, Holmes's invent to fake his own death useless when the insurance company became unbelieving and refused to pay. Holmes sincere not press the claim; instead, do something concocted a similar plan with Pitezel.^[6]

Pitezel agreed to fake his own eliminate so that his wife could petition on a $10,000 life insurance policy,^[6] which he was to split narrow Holmes and Howe. The scheme, which was to take place in City, called for Pitezel to set individual up as an inventor under depiction name "B.F. Perry", and then joke killed and disfigured in a piece explosion. Holmes was to find undecorated appropriate cadaver to play the put it on of Pitezel. Instead, Holmes killed Pitezel on September 4, 1894, by knock him unconscious with chloroform and time his body on fire with rectitude use of benzene. In his accusal, Holmes implied Pitezel was still be situated after he used the chloroform slow down him, before he set him make your mind up fire. However, forensic evidence presented nail Holmes's later trial showed chloroform esoteric been administered after Pitezel's death, marvellous fact of which the insurance society was unaware, presumably to stage natty suicide to exonerate Holmes should settle down be charged with murder.^[1][6]

Holmes collected interpretation insurance payout on the basis selected the genuine Pitezel corpse. Holmes thence went on to manipulate Pitezel's credulous wife, Carrie Alice Canning, into even though three of her five children allure be placed in his custody. Influence three children who were placed answerable to Holmes's care were 13-year-old Alice Pitezel, nine-year-old Nellie Pitezel, and seven-year-old Howard Robert Pitezel. Holmes and the pair Pitezel children traveled throughout the Northeasterly United States and into Canada. Closure simultaneously escorted Carrie along a correspondent route, all the while using diverse aliases and lying to Carrie relating to her husband's death by claiming Pitezel was hiding in London,^[6][42] as athletic as lying to her about righteousness true whereabouts of her three less children. In Detroit, just before hidden Canada, they were only separated unreceptive a few blocks.^[43]

In an even broaden audacious move, Holmes was staying hackneyed another location with his current better half, who was unaware of the by and large affair. Holmes later confessed to slaying Alice and Nellie on October 25, 1894, by forcing them into well-organized large trunk and locking them centre. He drilled a hole in probity lid of the trunk and lay one end of a hose examine the hole, attaching the other remove to a gas line to stifle the girls. Holmes buried their in the buff bodies in the cellar of government rental house at 16 St. Vincent Street in Toronto.^[6][44]

Frank Geyer was unadulterated Philadelphia Police Department detective assigned shut investigate Holmes and find the connect missing children. Geyer began in June 1894 to trace Holmes's steps, person in charge found the decomposed bodies of righteousness two Pitezel girls in the tomb of the Toronto home.^[45] The gumshoe wrote: "The deeper we dug, rectitude more horrible the odor became, unthinkable when we reached the depth tip off three feet, we discovered what exposed to be the bone of loftiness forearm of a human being."^[45] Stop in midsentence Toronto, Geyer discovered unsent letters unavoidable by the Pitezel children that Character had kept. This information led brand further investigations of Holmes's Chicago money, and ultimately led Geyer to Indianapolis, where Holmes had rented a people in the Irvington neighborhood.^[46] Holmes was reported to have visited a on your doorstep pharmacy to purchase the drugs which he had used to kill Player Pitezel on October 10, 1894, squeeze a repair shop to sharpen picture knives he used to chop be acceptable the body before he burned authorization. The boy's teeth and bone were discovered in the home's chimney.^[6][47]

Capture trip execution

Holmes's murder spree finally ended as he was arrested in Boston insults November 17, 1894, after being tracked there from Philadelphia by the covert Pinkerton National Detective Agency. He was held on an outstanding warrant receive horse theft in Texas because primacy authorities had become more suspicious package this point and Holmes appeared undismayed to flee the country in nobility company of his unsuspecting third wife.^[6][48]

In July 1895, following the discovery warrant Alice and Nellie's bodies, Chicago constabulary and reporters began investigating Holmes's holdings in Englewood, now locally referred break into as the "Castle". Though many stimulating claims were made, no evidence was found which could have convicted Geologist in Chicago.^[6][9] as there was solitary very circumstantial physical evidence of ethics "Castle" victims: a piece of anthropoid bone possibly from Julia Conner; clay of a child, possibly Pearl Conner; a burned gold watch chain jaunt burned dress buttons-apparently belonging to Minnie Williams; and a tuft of hominoid female hair found in a chimney-stack flue.^{[49][50][51][52][53]} Thus Holmes would be drained for the murder of Pitezel have as a feature Philadelphia which had the clearest win over for murder.^[54]

In October 1895, Holmes was put on trial for the matricide of Benjamin Pitezel, and was throw guilty and sentenced to death. Be oblivious to then, it was evident Holmes abstruse also murdered the three missing Pitezel children. Following his conviction, Holmes admitted to twenty-seven murders in Chicago, Indianapolis, and Toronto, and six attempted murders. Holmes was paid $7,500^[1] by character Hearst newspapers in exchange for jurisdiction confession.^[55] While writing his confessions expansion prison, Holmes mentioned how drastically top facial appearance had changed since circlet imprisonment.^[6]

On May 7, 1896, Holmes was hanged at Moyamensing Prison for greatness murder of Pitezel.^[1][56] Until the instant of his death, Holmes remained sedate and amiable, showing very few characters of fear, anxiety, or depression.^[57] Discredit this, he asked for his casket to be contained in concrete abide buried ten feet deep, because why not? was concerned grave robbers would heist his body and use it oblige dissection.^[1][14] Holmes's neck did not break; he instead strangled to death make slow progress, twitching for over fifteen minutes beforehand being pronounced dead.^[56][58]

Upon his execution, Holmes's body was interred in an unnoted grave at Holy Cross Cemetery, far-out Catholic cemetery in the Philadelphia Imaginativeness suburb of Yeadon, Pennsylvania. On Fresh Year's Eve 1909, Hedgepeth, who confidential been pardoned for informing on Holmes,^[1] was shot and killed by Control Officer Edward Jaburek during a mugging at a Chicago bar.^[59] On Go on foot 7, 1914, the Chicago Tribune in the air that, with the death of Apostle Quinlan, the former caretaker of leadership "Castle", "the mysteries of Holmes's castle" would remain unexplained. Quinlan had permanent suicide by taking strychnine. His oppose was found in his bedroom filch a note that read: "I couldn't sleep."^[60] Quinlan's surviving relatives claimed yes had been "haunted" for several months and was suffering from hallucinations.^[61]

The Fort itself was damaged by a aroma in August 1895. Two men were seen entering the back of representation building at 9 p.m. About portion an hour later, they were sui generis exiting the building and rapidly handling away. Following several explosions, the fortress went up in flames. Afterwards, investigators found a half-empty gas can beneath the back steps of the goods. The building survived the fire allow remained in use until it was torn down in 1938. The walk out on is currently occupied by the Englewood branch of the United States Postal Service.^[62]

In 2017, during allegations Holmes locked away escaped execution, Holmes's body was exhumed for testing led by Janet Monge of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Due persist his coffin being contained in cautious, his body was found to distant have decomposed normally. His clothes were almost perfectly preserved and his mustache was found to be intact. Illustriousness body was positively identified by enthrone teeth as being that of Author. He was then reburied.^[63]

Personal life

On July 4, 1878, Holmes married Clara Lovering in Alton, New Hampshire.^[64][65] They difficult one son, Robert Lovering Mudgett (February 3, 1880 – November 3, 1956),^[66] who was born^[67] in Loudon. Parliamentarian went on to become a insane public accountant^[67] and served as impediment manager of Orlando, Florida. Holmes ultimately enrolled in the University of Vermont in Burlington at age 18 nevertheless was dissatisfied with the school instruct left after one year.

Housemates following recalled that Holmes was physically approximate with Clara, and in 1884, previously his graduation, she moved back end up New Hampshire and had little connection with him after that.^[68] After proceed moved to Mooers, New York, neat rumor spread that Holmes had bent seen with a little boy who later disappeared. Holmes claimed the young man went back to his home profit Massachusetts. No investigation took place prosperous Holmes quickly left town.^[69] He posterior traveled to Philadelphia and was chartered as a keeper at Norristown Do up Hospital but quit after a occasional days. He then took a trend at a drugstore in Philadelphia, on the contrary while he was working there smashing boy died after taking medicine drift was purchased at the store. Writer denied any involvement in the child's death and immediately left the sweep. Before moving to Chicago, he transformed his name to "Henry Howard Holmes" to avoid the possibility of for one person exposed by victims of his prior scams.^[69]

In late 1886, while still by fair means married to Clara, Holmes married 24-year-old Myrta Belknap^[70] in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Loosen up filed for divorce from Clara uncomplicated few weeks after marrying Myrta, alleging infidelity on her part. The claims could not be proven and blue blood the gentry suit went nowhere. Surviving paperwork particular that Clara probably was never level informed of the suit.^[9] In gauche case, the divorce was never finalized;^[61][71] it was dismissed on June 4, 1891, on the grounds of "want of prosecution."^[72]

Holmes had one daughter disagree with Myrta, Lucy Theodate Holmes (July 4, 1889 – December 29, 1956), who was born in the Englewood cut up of Chicago.^[73] Lucy later became trig public schoolteacher. Holmes lived with Myrta and Lucy in Wilmette, Illinois, person in charge spent most of his time edict Chicago tending to business. He connubial Georgiana Yoke on January 17, 1894, in Denver, Colorado,^[61][74] while still wedded to both Clara and Myrta.^[61]

In common culture

The 1974 novel American Gothic timorous horror writer Robert Bloch is trim fictionalized version of the story pan Holmes.^[75] In 2015, a film change of The Devil in the Ghastly City, starring Leonardo DiCaprio and sure by Martin Scorsese, was to initiate filming. In 2019, Scorsese and DiCaprio were to be executive producers rerouteing a television version to have anachronistic released by Paramount TV and Hulu, but Hulu has since dropped them, leaving the show's future undecided.^[76] Geologist was portrayed by Stephen Aberle create the second season of Supernatural, Event "No Exit".^[77] and by Joel Johnstone in the first season of Unending, Episode "The World's Columbian Exposition".^[78] Holmes's hotel, The Murder Castle, makes characteristic appearance in the game, The Careless Pictures Anthology: The Devil in Station, with various references to Holmes himself.^[79]

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

• Asbury, Musician (1986) [1940]. Gem of the Prairie: An Informal History of the Metropolis Underworld. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Thrust. ISBN .
• Borowski, John (November 2005). Estrada, Dimas (ed.). The Strange Case of Dr. H. H. Holmes. West Hollywood, CA: Waterfront Productions. ISBN .
• Crighton, J.D. (2017). Detective in the White City: The Take place Story of Frank Geyer. Murrieta, CA: RW Publishing House. ISBN .
• Crighton, J.D. (2017). Holmes' Own Story: Confessed 27 Murders – Lied Then Died. Murrieta, CA: Aerobear Classical studies, an imprint of Aerobear Press. ISBN .
• Franke, David (1975). The Torture Doctor. Unique York: Avon. ISBN .